RESUMO Com a crise hídrica vivida na atualidade, as concessionárias de água têm buscado soluções para diminuir as perdas de água. No sistema de abastecimento de água podem acontecer dois tipos, as perdas reais — ocasionadas por vazamentos na tubulação, transbordamentos e vazamentos nos reservatórios — e as perdas aparentes — causadas por fraudes, ligações clandestinas e erros de submedição dos hidrômetros. O acompanhamento periódico da confiabilidade metrológica dos hidrômetros, por meio de calibração, permite o apoio na decisão pela troca, ou não, reduzindo, assim, as perdas aparentes. Dessa forma, este artigo apresenta um método para calibração de hidrômetro para água fria, taquimétrico, monojato, classe B, de vazão nominal de 1,5 m3/h, tipo de medidor mais utilizado nas ligações residenciais, por meio da Portaria do INMETRO de nº 246, de 17 de outubro de 2000. O método proposto apresenta as condições para preparação dos medidores e da bancada, o sistema de medição, as possíveis fontes dos erros e suas respectivas incertezas associadas. Além do método de cálculo de incerteza de medição, conforme preconiza o guia para a expressão de incerteza de medição (GUM) da ISO, publicado em 2008. Foi realizada a calibração de três hidrômetros usados, fabricados nos anos de 2015, 2016 e 2017 e escolhidos aleatoriamente no parque de hidrômetros do município de Recife, gerido pela Companhia Pernambucana de Saneamento (COMPESA). Os resultados obtidos demonstram a viabilidade do método no apoio na troca dos hidrômetros pela análise comparativa entre os valores de referência do INMETRO e os medidos somados às incertezas.

ABSTRACT With the current water crisis, water companies have been joining efforts to find solutions to reduce water losses. In a water supply system, there can be two types of losses, the real ones — caused by pipe leaks, tank leaks, and overflows in the reservoirs — and the apparent losses — caused by fraud, illegal connections, and metering inaccuracies. The periodic monitoring of the metrological reliability of the water meters through calibration allows supporting the decision on whether or not to change these water meters, thus reducing apparent losses. Therefore, this paper presented a method for calibrating the cold water, tachometer, monojate, class B water meters, with a nominal flow rate of 1.5 m3/h, the most commonly used type of meter for residential connections, through the INMETRO Ordinance No. 246, October 17, 2000. The proposed method presents the conditions for meter and bench preparation, the measurement system, the possible sources of errors, and their associated uncertainties. In addition to the measurement uncertainty calculation method, as recommended by the ISO Guideline for Measurement Uncertainty Expression (GUM), published in 2008. Three water meters in use, from the Pernambuco water company (COMPESA), manufactured in 2015, 2016, and 2017, were calibrated using the proposed method and bench. The results obtained demonstrate the viability of the method to support the change of water meters in the comparative analysis between INMETRO reference values and the measured value corrected with uncertainties.

Resumo: As tensões residuais (TR) nas juntas soldadas do aço ASTM A131 AH36 foram analisadas pelo método DPC (deslocamento de pontos coordenados). A soldagem a arco foi realizada pelos processos eletrodo revestido (ER) e arame tubular (AT). As chapas de teste com dimensões de 200 mm x 65 mm e espessura 31,75 mm foram soldadas, segundo as normas (fabricação e qualificação) AWS D1.1 [1] e Petrobrás N-133 [2], respectivamente. Depois de soldadas foram realizados furos equidistantes com diâmetros de 2,00 mm por 2,00 mm de profundidade ao longo da zona termicamente afetada. Após a furação, tais furos foram referenciados em uma mesa de medição por coordenadas. Em seguida, as chapas de teste soldadas foram submetidas a um tratamento térmico para o alívio de tensões (TTAT) e, em seguida, foram medidos os deslocamentos dos furos causados pelo tratamento, o que possibilitou o cálculo das tensões residuais. Os resultados obtidos mostraram uma boa correlação do DPC com outros métodos de medições das TR.

Abstract: The residual stress (RS) in welded joints of ASTM A131 AH36 were analyzed by the method DPC (coordinated points displacement). The arc welding was performed using by Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) and Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) processes. The test plates with dimensions of 200 mm x 65 mm and thickness of 31,75 mm were welded according to AWS D1.1 [1] and Petrobras N-133 [2] standards (manufacture and qualification), respectively. After welding, equidistant holes with diameters of 2.00 mm and depth of 2.00 mm were drilled along the heat affected zone. After drilling, the holes were referenced on a coordinate measuring table. Then, the welded test plates were subjected to Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT) and then the displacements of the holes caused by the treatment were measured, making possible the calculation of residual stresses. The results obtained showed a good correlation of the DPC with other methods of measurement for TR.

Residual stresses on welded joints have been studied by several methods. In this present work, residual stresses was measured by a novel methodology under development named Displacement of Coordinated Points (DCP). To evaluate anisotropy effects in steel plates, two directions of the weld bead were considered: Welding was performed in both parallel and transversal direction of rolled steel plate ASTM A131 grade AH36.The experiments showed higher values of the residual stress in the transversal direction of the lamination when compared with the longitudinal direction, evidencing the anisotropy effect of the material. It was also observed that the increasing in heat input induces higher residual stress.

Choosing welding parameters is an important step in welding process, directly influencing in the heat input provided to welded joints. This heat input value, along with temperature distribution in welded joints, provides, to the drafter, conditions of predicting the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) extension, the kind of microstructure to be formed, and therefore, the effects of residual stress. Three welding parameters were switched, providing different welding conditions. Each condition was analyzed by SmartWeld 2011 software and macrography to find and compare the extension of HAZ. As for the residual stresses, calculated through Displacement of Coordinated Points (DCP) method. It is possible to choose the best parameters for the welded joint by GMAW process considering the parameters in study.

The lamination process adds the anisotropy characteristic in the final product. This anisotropy influences the yield strength according to the direction in question, the difference between the value of the yield tension in one direction and the value of the yield tension in another direction referred to as the back stress. Naval plates were welded by the GMAW process in the longitudinal direction to the lamination and in the transverse direction, and with different thermal loads. The residual stresses were calculated by displacement coordinate points method (DCP) and the back stress was found by tensile tests in specimen subjected made with either the longitudinal lamination direction and transverse lamination direction. The material used was ASTM A131 naval steel grade AH-36. The welded plates with greater thermal load in the longitudinal direction presented smaller residual stress in this direction, in relation to the transverse lamination direction. In the welded plates with greater thermal load, in the transverse lamination direction, the displacements in different directions were close, showing that the back stress does not act reversing the displacement (flow). Finally, for the welded plates with lower thermal load, both welded in the longitudinal and transverse direction, the displacements were small. In addition, the back stress did not act reversing such displacements.

Residual stresses in a welded joint of ASTM A131 grade AH32 steel was measured either by the X-ray diffraction or by displacements of referenced points measured on a coordinate measuring machine before and after heat treatment. For all tests, the welding was performed with Shielded Metal Arc Welding, vertical-up position, by a certified welder. After welding, some specimens were subjected to marking, made through small holes evenly spaced and mapped on a coordinate measuring machine. After labeling, the samples were subjected to heat treatment at temperatures nearby recrystallization. After heat treatment, the samples were subjected to new measurements by coordinate measuring machine to evaluate the displacements of the points produced by the recrystallization. In parallel, residual stress measurements were made by XRD for validation of this new methodology. The results obtained either by X-ray or by coordinate measuring machine showed a good correlation between the two measurement methodologies employed.